Verbenone-Rich Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) Essential Oil: GC-MS Profiling, Potent Antibacterial and Antifungal Activities, and Cytotoxic Potential
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.51152/jbarbiomed.v11i1.257Keywords:
Rosmarinus officinalis, Verbenone-rich chemotype, Essential oil, GC–MS, Antimicrobial activity, Cytotoxicity, Vero cells, JordanAbstract
This study investigated the chemical composition, antimicrobial activity, and cytotoxic potential of Rosmarinus officinalis L. (syn. Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.) essential oil (EO). Fresh leaves were hydrodistilled using a Clevenger apparatus, and the resulting EO was analyzed by GC-MS. Twenty-five compounds representing 96.06% of the oil were identified, dominated by oxygenated monoterpenes (82.34%): verbenone (27.14%), camphor (16.59%), and 1,8-cineole (12.55%), followed by hydrocarbon monoterpenes (9.89%), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (1.84%), and oxygenated sesquiterpenes (1.00%). Antimicrobial activity was assessed against clinical and reference bacterial and fungal strains using the disc diffusion and broth microdilution methods. The EO exhibited potent antibacterial effects, with inhibition zones up to 20.0 ± 1.3 mm and MICs ranging from 0.9–3.75 mg/mL. Notably, activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli surpassed that of cefotaxime, while Staphylococcus epidermidis showed the lowest susceptibility. Antifungal testing revealed substantial inhibition of Cryptococcus neoformans ATCC 90112 (17.3 ± 0.8 mm; MIC 0.9 mg/mL), equivalent to amphotericin B, with moderate activity against Candida albicans strains (MIC 1.9–3.75 mg/mL). Cytotoxicity toward normal Vero cells was evaluated at concentrations of 10–100 μg/mL, revealing a dose-dependent inhibition with an IC₅₀ of 62.80 μg/mL, classifying the EO as highly cytotoxic under OECD and NIH guidelines. Importantly, the IC₅₀ was considerably higher than the MICs observed, and the lowest cytotoxicity test concentration (10 μg/mL) exceeded the antimicrobial effective range, suggesting that antibacterial and antifungal activity may occur at non-cytotoxic levels. These findings highlight verbenone-rich R. officinalis EO from Jordan as a promising source of natural antimicrobial agents with potential pharmaceutical and preservative applications. However, its high cytotoxicity warrants further investigation into safe dosing, formulation strategies, and synergistic combinations to optimize its therapeutic index.
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